References: The U.S. Constitution and subsequent amendments guarantee the right to vote to all 18 year old adults (although some states disqualify felons and those with extreme mental disabilities). D. Grier Stephenson, Jr., "The Principles of Democratic Elections," [ LINK ]

Peer Review Comments: Minor suggestion: Cite the article and amendments.

References: Federal elections held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, which was initially established in 1845 (3 U.S.C. 1) for the appointment of Presidential electors in every fourth year. 2 U.S.C. 7 established this date for electing U.S. Representatives in every even numbered year in 1875. Finally, 2 U.S.C. 1 established this date as the time for electing U.S. Senators in 1914. Other elections (e.g., primary) elections take place on pre-assigned dates set by each state. U.S. Electoral Assistance Commission, [ LINK ]

References: Economic disparities create unequal voting experiences. For example, voters in poorer neighborhoods tend to wait in far longer lines for their opportunity to vote--thereby increasing the possibility of lower turnout. And according to the nonpartisan League of Women Voters, many states have developed laws, rules or procedures that limit access to the ballot box. For example, many states have chosen to implement the statewide database requirement of the Help America Vote Act (HAVA) in ways that make it harder for eligible applicants to register. Together, these new requirements disproportionately impact those citizens who have been historically marginalized in the political process: women, low-income people, members of ethnic and racial minorities, youth, people with disabilities and seniors. Mike Slater, Laura Kyser and Jo-Anne Chasnow, "New Barriers to Voting: Eroding the Right to Vote," The National Voter, League of Women Voters, June 2006.

References: Ballots are almost always secret or equivalently protected. "U.S. Elections Frequently Asked Questions," Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. It should be noted that secret ballots have come under fire recently, because the voter is given no permanent record of his or her vote that can be used in the case of a recount, and new electronic voting software is subject to hacking. "New voting machines failed test", Sarasota Herald-Tribune (Florida), August 9, 2007

References: As noted above, election dates have typically been predictable in the US, although states have been competing to have earlier primaries for the 2008 presidential election. Frustrated, States Try to Change The Way Presidents Are Elected, New York Times, august 11, 2007.

References: Citizens may form political parties, although numerous institutional and financial barriers prevent independent or third parties from challenging the dominant Republican and Democratic parties. See: John F. Bibby, "Political Parties in the United States," Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. [ LINK ]

Peer Review Comments: Could you cite the U.S. Constitution on freedom of association or right to political participation in electing president/legislators?

References: Citizens may run for run for any office, although the Constitution places some restrictions on certain offices (e.g., a candidate for president must have been born in the United States). U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1.

References: Although Democrats and Republicans dominate elections, other parties (including the Greens) participate in elections. For a list of parties, see: [ LINK ]. The most recent significant impact by a third party in a U.S. presidential election came in 1992, when billionaire Ross Perot garnered 19% of the vote. See: John F. Bibby, "Political Parties in the United States," Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. [ LINK ]

References: While it is extremely rare that citizens are barred from the ballot through government abuse of official rules and/or unofficial pressure, the increasingly high price of state and especially national offices effectively prohibits entry for candidates who are not themselves independently wealthy or do not enjoy access to a steady stream of wealthy contributors. See, for example, the op-ed by former Democratic senator Ernest F. Hollings, "Stop the Money Chase," Washington Post, February 19, 2006.

Peer Review Comments: You may want to come back to the native-born requirement for running for president.

References: The high level of partisanship over the last 13 years has created a legislature in which the party in power dominates the institution, even when that party has a only slight majority control. Congressional Democrats had promised to be more conciliatory to their Republican brethren upon taking control of Congress in November 2006, but Republicans claim to have been shut out on numerous legislative processes. Still, Congress has seen a greater degree of bipartisanship on issues pertaining to Iraq and malfeasance in the Bush administration, in part driven by Bush's decreased political clout.

"Pelosi proud of Dems' work in first 100 days," San Francisco Chronicle, March 29, 2007. For a fuller view of Congress' problems, see The Broken Branch: How Congress is Failing America and How to Get it Back on Track, Brookings Institution, 2006.

Peer Review Comments: It's a close call, but this seems more like a 100 to me. The minority party almost always has some influence on proceedings via the Senate rule of 60. I would rate this a 90 or 95 if I could.

Peer Review Comments: You could also raise the congressional redistricting issue, which is typically a move by the party in power to limit representation of minority parties.